The Origin of the English Language - Part I

What is English?

A short history of the origins and development of the English language.

The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders—mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc—from which the words England and English are derived.

Old English (450-1100 AD)

The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100.

(*The manuscript shows part of Beowulf, a poem written in Old English)

Middle English (1100-1500)

In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today.
(* The manuscript shows an example of Middle English by Chaucer)

Early Modern English (1500-1800)

Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world. This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published.
(* The manuscript shows Hamlet's famous "To be, or not to be" lines, written in Early Modern English by Shakespeare).

Late Modern English (1800-Present)

The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from 

many countries.

 Varieties of English

From around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the creation of a distinct American variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words "froze" when they reached America. In some ways, American English is more like the English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions that the British call "Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost for a time in Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-up, was re-imported into Britain through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also had an influence on American English (and subsequently British English), with words like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of Spanish words that entered English through the settlement of the American West. French words (through Louisiana) and West African words (through the slave trade) also influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British English).

Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of cinema, television, popular music,and technology (including the Internet). But there are many other varieties of English around the world, including for example Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English and Caribbean English.

The Germanic Family of Languages

English is a member of the Germanic family of languages.

Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family.

A brief chronology of English
55 BC	Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar.	Local inhabitants speak Celtish
AD 43	Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain.
436	Roman withdrawal from Britain complete.
449	Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins
450-480	Earliest known Old English inscriptions.	Old English
1066	William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades and conquers England.
c1150	Earliest surviving manuscripts in Middle English.	Middle English
1348	English replaces Latin as the language of instruction in most schools.
1362	English replaces French as the language of law. English is used in Parliament for the first time.
c1388	Chaucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales.
c1400	The Great Vowel Shift begins.
1476	William Caxton establishes the first English printing press.	Early Modern English
1564	Shakespeare is born.
1604	Table Alphabeticall, the first English dictionary, is published.
1607	The first permanent English settlement in the New World (Jamestown) is established.
1616	Shakespeare dies.
1623	Shakespeare's First Folio is published
1702	The first daily English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant, is published in London.
1755	Samuel Johnson publishes his English dictionary.
1776	Thomas Jefferson writes the American Declaration of Independence.
1782	Britain abandons its American colonies.
1828	Webster publishes his American English dictionary.	Late Modern English
1922	The British Broadcasting Corporation is founded.
1928	The Oxford English Dictionary is published.

Origins of Language

• How humans first learned to talk - natural selection, survival advantages of communication in group cooperation (Lieberman)
• Chimpanzee cannot raise its tongue to the roof of its mouth to cut off passage of air and make sounds like "t" or "k" (Savage-Rumbaugh); but apes capable of learning sign language
• 5-6 million years ago, humans split from chimpanzees
• 3.6 million years ago, African australopithecines, apelike vocal tract, could not speak, communicated by gestures and grunts (Ehrlich)
• 3 million years ago, crude human proto-language: emergence of ability to pronounce more distinct sounds; early language as mixture of gestures and sounds
• 2 million years ago, archaic Homo erectus developed physical organs and mental capacity to produce a rough form of speech
• 300,000 years ago, early Neanderthals still could not pronounce "ee" and "oo"
• 100,000 years ago, first modern vocal tract appears in fossils of Homo sapiens
• 50,000 years ago, brain lateralization and language ability localization in left hemisphere
• 45,000 years ago, beginnings of development of symbolic thought and of language as we know it.

Origins of Writing

• Writing as derivative of speech but also independent from it
• Durability in space and time
• Earliest graphic representations, cave paintings, pictographs, petroglyphs
• ChauvetPont-d'Arc cave paintings (32,000-30,000 yeras ago) 
• Lascaux cave paintings (17,000-15,000 years ago)
• Altamira cave paintings (17,000-14,000 years ago)
• Native American petroglyphs (13,000-2,000 years ago)
  
• Sumerians, "invention" of writing, c. 3,000 B.C.
• cuneiform: reed on clay, wedge shaped marks, example, Sumerian-Babylonian ideogram ninda = "bread":

• business and accounting records;
• pictorial symbols, then more schematic symbols;
• word signs, then syllable signs;
• Sumerian writing adopted by others (Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians);
• Sample of Babylonian script.
  

•  Egyptian hieroglyphics, invented during the Archaic period (3000-2650 BC)
  
• Pictographs, ideograms, logograms, syllabaries, alphabets 
• from pictures to more abstract graphics:

• phonetization of writing: use of homonyms, examples:
• hieroglyphic for Ancient Egyptian djeba = "finger" also used for number 10,000:

• hieroglyphic for Ancient Egyptian kha ="lotus" also used for number 1,000:

• from representation of words to that of syllables and individual sounds. Cf. contemporary Japanese writing systems, logographic (kanji), syllabaries (katakana and hiragana, each with 46 signs), and can also be written with Roman alphabetic characters.
• rebus expression: word signs standing for syllables/sounds which can be used in denoting other words or parts of words.

• Semitic/Phoenician syllabary/alphabet to Greek and Roman alphabet
• Phoenicians used cuneiform writing but also developed an alphabetic script (22 symbols), since 15th c. B.C.

• Around 1000 B.C. Greeks adapted Phoenician/Semitic symbols to their own writing.